James Adair and the Indians of the Southeast. Certain authors need to be examined separately in respect to how they described the dress and adornment of the Southeastern Indian. James Adair's book, The History of the American Indian, is one of the most widely quoted texts on the American Indian of the mid-eighteenth century. James Adair was a trader who lived amongst the Indians for forty years commencing in 1735. Initially, he spent time with the Cherokee Indians, but in 1744, he moved in with the Chickasaws. According to S.C. Williams, he wrote the majority of the book between 1761 and 1768. Adair, for the most part, dealt with the Southeastern Indians in general. His area of concentration appeared to center around the Chickasaws, Cherokees, Creeks, Catawbas, and Choctaws. As already stated, he described the way of life of the Indians in general; however, when applicable, he did bring attention to characteristics of different tribes. This differentiation cannot only be seen through out the text, but Adair specifically referred to it: "The Indians for a long time had no intercourse with the rest of the world, and seldom one nation of them with another, their rites and customs are in several respects different. But as they agree in essentials......."1 Even though the above statement was based upon a fallacious premiss - that Indian nations had little intercourse with each other in past times (the parameters of these times are not defined), it demonstrated the fact that he was aware of differences and similarities amongst the nations. Thus, when he described the apparel of an Indian, unless he specified a single tribe, it can be safely assumed that he meant the Indians of the Southeast as an aggregate. The descriptions of the Indians portrayed by Adair have to be looked at in respect to Adair's general outlook. His book, not only was written to give a history of the American Indian, but it was written to prove that these Indians were part of the Lost Tribes of Israel. He called these Indians "Copper colour American Hebrews". 2The information in the majority of the book, is geared toward proving this point. Also, his attitude toward the Indians appears to be paradoxical. His underlying attitude toward them seemed to be one of respect and admiration: "I have the pleasure of writing this by the side of a Chikkasah female, as great a princess as ever lived....."3 However, in his section of the book, "General Observations on the North American Indians", he commenced with the sentence: "In the following pages, the reader will find as great a variety of entertainment, as can be well expected in describing a rude and uncivilized people."4 In order to make sense out of Adair's narratives, it is necessary to dissect and analyze his descriptions of dress almost sentence by sentence. This method of analysis is necessary because it is not always possible to differentiate completely between Adair's eye witness account of the Indians' material culture and what he believed their culture was in former times. It is especially difficult because he is not consistent in his use of tenses. In addition, it is possible that he bent some of his descriptions to prove that they agreed with his premise that these Indians were part of the lost tribes of Israel. "Their chief dress is very simple, like that of the patriarchal age; of choice, many of the old head-men wear a long wide frock, made of the skins of the wild beasts, in honor of the ancient custom. It must be necessity that forces them to the pinching sandals to their feet."5 No where has any author ever attributed the wearing of sandals to the Indians with which Adair lived. Also, their moccasins proved so comfortable and practical, that Europeans, especially on the frontiers, adopted them. When Adair's information does not agree with past eye witness accounts or needs elucidating, the comments will be noted within the quotation by the use of square brackets. These quotations seem to refer to the historical past since he starts out this particular narrative with the word "formerly". "They formerly wore shirts, made of drest deer-skins for their summer visiting dress [possibly, according to other texts, if they were visiting Europeans]; but their winter-hunting clothes were long and shaggy, made of the skins of panthers, bucks, bears, beaver, and otters; the fleshy sides outward, sometimes doubled, and always soft like velvet-cloth, though they retained their fur and hair. [It would be very hard to hunt in the woods encumbered by a long, shaggy, and double skin. This dress has no corroborating evidence that it was used while hunting unless it was the dress made to look like the animals they were hunting.] The needles and thread they used formerly, (and now at times) were fish-bones, or the horns and bones of deer, rubbed sharp, and deer's sinews, and a sort of hemp, that grows among them spontaneously, in rich open lands. The women's dress consists only in a broad softened skin, or several small skins sewed together, which they wrap around and tye round their waist, reaching a little below their knees: In cold weather, they wrap themselves in the softened skins of buffalo calves, with the wintery shagged wool inward, never forgetting to anoint and tie up their hair, except in their time of mourning. [The wearing of robes in the winter was not uncommon; however, implying that they all were made from buffalo calf's skins is uncommon.] The men wear, for ornament, and conveniences of hunting, thin deer-skin boots, well smoked, that reach so high up their thighs, as with their jackets to secure them from the brambles and braky thickets. [The Indians did not commonly wear upper garments like jackets when hunting. In addition, Adair seems to be confusing leggings with the top of the moccasins. Some tribes did wear moccasins that extended up the legs, but in the southeast, until Adair's statement, there is no mention of any that reached to the thigh.] They sewed them about five inches from the edges, which are formed into tossels, to which they fasten fawns trotters, and small pieces of tinkling metal, or wild turkey-cock-spurs. The beaus used to fasten the like to their war-pipes, with the addition of a piece of the enemy's scalp with a tuft of long hair hanging down the middle of the stem, each of them painted red: and they still observe the old custom, only now they choose bell-buttons, to give a greater sound. "The young Indian men and women, through a fondness of their ancient dress, wrap a piece of cloth round them, that has a near resemblance to the old Roman toga, or prætexta. Tis about a fathom square, bordered seven or eight quarters deep, to make a shining cavalier of the beau monde, and to keep out both the heat and cold.[Toga like garments were pictured by White as having been worn in the sixteenth century. It is not known to what time period Adair was referring.]"6 In the following section, Adair wrote of the general dress of the Southeastern Indians in the mid-eighteenth century. "The men wear a slip of cloth, about a quarter of an ell wide and an ell and an half long, in lieu of breeches; which they put between their legs, and tye round their haunches, with a convenient broad bandage. The women, since the time we first traded with them, wrap a fathom of the half breadth of Stroud cloth round their waist, and tie it with a leathern belt, which is commonly covered with brass runners or buckles; but this sort of loose petticoat reaches only to their hams.... "They make their shoes for common use, out of the skins of the bear and elk, well dressed and smoked to prevent hardening; and those for ornament, out of deer-skins, done in the like manner: but they chiefly go bare-footed, and always bare headed. The men fasten several different sorts of beautiful feathers, frequently in tufts; or the wing of a red bird, or the skin of a small hawk, to a lock of hair on the crown of their heads. And every different Indian nation, when at war, trim their hair, after a different manner, through contempt of each other; thus we can distinguish an enemy in the woods, so far off as we can see him."7 According to Adair, during his forty years with the Indians, many of the tribes were still practicing the art of infant head flattening.8 Adair's description of their dress in the mid-eighteenth century is more consistent with that described by other writers than was his descriptions of their earlier dress. However, he does not refer to the wide spread use of European articles of dress as have other contemporary traders and travelers. It is possible that since Adair lived with some of the more remote Indians, the Cherokees, for example, that the use of European clothes was not as prevalent as it was with more coastally situated tribes; or he could have felt that their use was inconsistent with his portrayal of them as being descendants of the lost tribes of Israel. It is known, however, from his commentary, that they were very much aware of European garb since they held some of it in contempt. The Indians had a great disdain for breeches. They felt they symbolized "helplessness and effeminacy."9 Also, they interfered with certain aspects of their life style. As Adair wrote: "The Indian women also discreetly observed, that, as all their men sit down to make water, the ugly breeches would exceedingly incommode them."10 They, also, had contempt for many of the European's physical countenance. They looked on those Europeans, especially the soldiers who were corpulent, with tremendous disdain and could not understand how high ranking titles could be conferred on those who were lazy and fat, as signified by their having "big bellies."11 Since Adair's main concern was to prove that the Indians were "Red Coloured American Hebrews", he seemed to gear most of his narrative about their dress and adornment toward that goal. "The Indian origin and descent may also be in some measure discerned by their taste for and kind of Ornaments. "The Israelites were fond of wearing beads and other ornaments, even as early as the patriarchal age, and the taste increased to such a degree that it became criminal, and was sharply reprehended by the prophets, especially Isaiah......In remembrance to these customs, the Indian females continually wear a beaded string round their legs, made of buffalo-hair, which is a species of coarse wool; and they reckon it a great ornament, as well as a preservative against miscarriages, hard labour, and other evils. [Once again, Adair is unique in his descriptions of their dress and/or ornamentation.] "The Indian nations are agreed in the custom of thus adorning themselves with beads of various sizes and colours: sometimes wrought in garters, sashes, necklaces, and in strings round their wrists; and so from the crown of their heads sometimes to the cartilage of the nose."12 "The men and women in old times used such coarse diamonds, as their own hilly country produced, when each had a bit of stone fastened with a deer's sinew to the tying of their hair, their nose, ears, and maccaseenes: but from the time we supplied them with our European ornaments, they have used brass and silver ear-rings, and finger-rings; [There is no mention of diamond mines in the southeast; however, it is possible that other shiny stones like quartz might have resembled diamonds.] The young warriors now frequently fasten bell-buttons, or pieces of tinkling brass to their maccaseenes, and the outside of their boots, instead of the old turky-cock-spurs which they formerly used. Both sexes esteem the above things, as very great ornaments of dress, and commonly load the parts with each sort, in proportion to their ability to purchase them: it is a common trading rule with us, to judge of the value of an Indian's effects, by the weight of his fingers, wrists, ears, crown of his head, boots, and maccaseenes --by the quantity of red paint daubed on his face, and by the shirt about the collar, shoulders, and back, should he have one. [This is the first intimation from Adair that the Indians wore European clothing although others had been describing it as part of their apparel for many years.] "Although the same things are commonly alike used or disused, by males and females; yet they distinguish their sexes in as exact a manner as any civilized nation. The women bore small holes in the lobe of their ears for their rings, but the young heroes cut a hole round almost the extremity of both their ears, which till healed, they stretch out with a large tuft of buffalo's wool mixt with bear's oil: then they twist as much small wire round as will keep them extended in that hideous form. The custom however is wearing off apace. They formerly wore nose-rings, or jewels, both in the northern and southern regions of America......and in some places they still observe it. At present, they [some] hang a piece of battered silver, or a large bead to the nostril."13 Different feasts celebrated different events. Therefore, the dress and ornamentation worn was appropriate to the specific feast and the individual's expected duties. In the festival of the Green Corn, for example, the warriors: ".....are drest in their wild martial array, with their heads covered with white down: they carry feathers of the same colour, either in their hands, or fastened to white scraped canes as emblems of purity......."14 When the women were called to dance, they were also dressed appropriately for the occasion. They wore: "Silver ear-bobs, or pendants to their ears, several rounds of white beads about their necks, rings upon their fingers, large wire or broad plates of silver around their wrists, their heads shining with oil, and torrepine [turtle] shells containing pebbles, fastened to deer-skins, tied to the outside of their legs."15 In another dance, it is noted that the deer-skin fastened to the women's legs was white since white symbolized purification.16 In the same vein, after the Green Corn dance was over, all who had sanctified themselves during the ceremonies were required to paint themselves with white clay.17 In what is now South Mississippi, the Indians who lived there had a feast that was aimed at renewing old friendships. During this feast, the men masked themselves with large pieces of gourd that were painted with hieroglyphics. Some of the male participants wore young buffalo horns, while others attached a tail to themselves.18 Another one of their festivals centered round the crowning of their warriors. "Every expectant warrior on that joyful day wears deer-skin maccaseenes, painted red, his body is anointed with bear's oil, a young and softened otter-skin is tied on each leg, a long collar of fine swan feathers hangs round his neck, and his face is painted with the various streaks of the rainbow."19 At the end of the ceremony, Adair claimed that each newly "graduated" warrior received a white crown and a scepter.20 While white, universally, has been a symbol of purification and red has been associated with war or blood shed, black has stood for mourning. Another aspect of mourning that is found in many cultures relates to the style or lack of style of the mourner's hair. Some cultures cut it off as a sign of respect and bereavement while other prohibit combing it. "They [the Indians] formerly dressed their heads with black moss on those solemn occasions....the women having their hair disheveled."21 Since the advent of the European and the ease of using European products, stroud cloth, kettles, etc., Adair stated that the Indians had forgotten their old mechanical traditions and could no longer live independently of the Europeans.22 Previously, according to Adair, the Indians were skilled weavers, basket makers, carpet makers etc. He quoted J. W--t, Esqu., (who S.C. Williams stated was probably John Wright of the Georgia colony - footnote #262 in Travels in the Tennessee Country 1540-1800.)) that formerly the Indians utilized shuttles23 and treadles24 when weaving. As stated earlier, Adair assumed that the Indians, in former times, wore deer-skin garments. Since he stated that they knew how to weave, the question naturally arises as to why they did not wear woven garments, especially clouts and "skirts" as did other tribes in the Southeast. Since the controversy, among anthropologists, concerning "twining and weaving" has been discussed previously, it will not be resumed in this part of the text. Since Adair and the early writers used the term "weaving," for the sake of clarity, the same term will be used. Adair described "weaving" practices of former periods as well as those in the mid-eighteenth century. "J. W.--t, Esq; a most skillful linguist of the Muskohge dialect, assures me, that time out of mind they passed the woof with a shuttle; and they have a couple of threddles, which they move with the hand so as to enable them to make a good dispatch, something after our manner of weaving. This is sufficiently confirmed by their method of working broad garters, sashes, shot pouches, broad belts, and the like, which are decorated all over with beautiful stripes and chequers."25 Buffalo hair was used for making thread for spinning. "In the winter season, the women gather buffalo's hair, a sort of course brown curled wool; and having spun it as fine as they can, and properly doubled it, they put small beads of different colours upon the yarn as they work it: the figures they work in those small webs, are generally uniform, but sometimes they diversify them on both sides. The Choktah weave shot-pouches, which have raised work inside and outside. They likewise make turkey feather blankets with the long feathers of the neck and breast of that large fowl--they twist the inner end of the feathers very fast into a strong doubled thread of hemp, or the inner bark of the mulberry tree, of the size and strength of coarse twine, as the fibres are sufficiently fine, and they work it in the manner of fine netting. As the feathers are long and glittering, this sort of blanket is not only warm, but pleasing to the eye."26 Although the making of carpets does not fall within the area of dress and adornment, the nature of the process is important for it adds information on the techniques of weaving. "Formerly, the Indians made very handsome carpets. They have a wild hemp that grows about six feet high, in open, rich, level lands, and which usually ripens in July: it is plenty on our frontier settlements. When it is fit for use, they pull, steep, peel, and beat it; and the old women spin it off the distaffs, with wooden machines, having some clay on the middle of them, to hasten the motion. When the coarse thread is prepared, they put it in a frame about six feet square, and instead of a shuttle, they thrust through the thread with a long cane, having a large string through the web, which they shift at every second course of the thread. When they have thus finished their arduous labour, they paint each side of the carpet with such figures, of various colours, as their fruitful imagination devise; particularly the images of those birds and beasts they are acquainted with; and likewise of themselves in their social, and marital stations."27 Even though Adair used the majority of his book to promulgate his theory about the Indians and the lost tribes of Israel, he did transmit much information that contextually appears correct. 23. Shuttle - Any contrivance on which yarn is packaged in order to facilitate its passage through a shed. Shed - The space made by raising certain warp threads and lowering others, through which the weft passes. Rachel Brown, The Weaving, Spinning, and Dyeing Book, p. 416. 24. Treadles - The pivotal levers at the base of the loom, which operates the heddle shafts. Heddle- The string, wire, flat steel (or other material) that encircles a warp thread, so that it can be pulled up separately from other warp threads. Rachel Brown, The Weaving, Spinning, and Dyeing Book, pp. 418 & 412. |