Choctaw Dress in the Nineteenth Century Before Removal to The Indian Territory West of the Mississippi. As the nineteenth century commenced, the Choctaw were in the same situation as were the other tribes of the southeast. The United States' government was hungry for their lands and the local non-native population desired to be "rid "of all Indians. During the term of President Thomas Jefferson, a series of treaties commenced whose articles called for the Indians to cede land; thus ensued major land cessions. By The Treaty of Fort Adams in 1801, the Government was able to not only gain over two hundred thousand acres, but also, an east to west road through the Choctaw Nation.1 Angie Debo, in The Rise and Fall of the Choctaw Republic, stated that these early treaties between the United States' Government and the Choctaw Nation which granted annuities to the tribes, individual compensation for losses suffered, and rewards for land cessions initiated a practice that would have a tremendous influence toward determining the future of Indian Nations.2 This practice would lead to widespread corruption among high ranking tribal individuals, promises to the United States of unfounded land cessions, and tribal politics governed by greed. The land cessions continued during the first decade of the nineteenth century. Many were brought about as payment for debts owed to the trading companies. These treaties were, also, used as tools to pacify the non-Indian settlers. The Federal government, while taking land from the Choctaws, also proffered friendship under the guise of protecting them from the Spanish. This, according to DeRosier, fostered, among the Choctaw, a greater dependence and respect for the United States.3 During 1808, according to a much quoted statement made by Annie Abel, the Choctaw: "evinced a disposition to withdraw themselves from the encircling white settlements, and that the Government tried to take advantage of this."4 However, she, also, stated that "the actual `talks' may not have come down to us."5 Few people left records that described the appearance of the Choctaw in the early part of the century. It is hard to determine to what percentage of the people these occasional descriptions referred. While people like John Pitchlynn, who was married to a mixed blood, sired children who would exert their influence in the fields of education for the "betterment" of the Choctaw people, other Choctaws remained untouched or negatively affected by this "progress". Fortescue Cumings traveled throughout the area of the Chickasaw and Choctaw from 1807-1809. He described a group of Choctaw men and women who lived about two miles outside of New Orleans. "Outside of the gate we saw a large circular shade for drying and manufacturing bricks, under which were upwards of fifty Indians of both sexes, chiefly intoxicated, singing, drinking, rolling in the dirt, and upon the whole, exhibiting a scene very disgustful.....We proceeded, and in our way, we met numbers of Indian women with large bundles of wood on their backs, first tied together and then held by a strap carried over their foreheads.....We saw numbers of other women sitting on the ground making baskets, mats, and sifters for Indian corn. The children were entirely naked. The chief part of the men and women that were engaged (for some of them were sober) were also naked, except for a piece of cloth which the men wore for decency, and a remarkably short petticoat worn by the women; in every other aspect they were entirely naked."6 It is probably a fair claim to state that Cuming's observances were not representative of the majority of the Choctaw. This statement is based on subsequent written descriptions that occurred circa 1820. When the factories were discontinued, individuals continued to supply the Indians. George A. Gaines opened up an establishment at one of the discontinued trading houses in 1822 with goods purchased from the Government. In his papers, he described the goods at the store and how they pertained to the Choctaws. "The establishment soon gained its old popularity & the chiefs and head men applied to us to purchase annualy [probably annuity] goods which we agreed to do for the commission merely to compensate our work; their agent was instructed to settle with us accordingly. We ordered the annuity goods from the English manufactures giving the lengths, breadths, & weights, as well as the quality of the wool of the various blankets so that each member of a family would have a blanket suited to their ages & pursuits. Blankets & strouds were the leading articles required. Strouds were a stout fabric of wool 1 7 in width colored blue & scarlet. A yard & a [?] of this cloth made a favorite shawl for a woman or two petticoats- 3/4 of a yard made a man's flap. The dress of a Choctaw belle was a petticoat, reaching below the knees of scarlet strouds, or a fine scarlet cloth if she could afford [it]. A calico shirt with silver wrist & arm bands with beads around the neck neat moccasins on their small feet reaching to the calf of the leg, laced around their anclas & ornamented with beads. "A Choctaw beaux wore moccasins, scarlet cloth leggings reaching above the knees, scarlet flap both ends suspended above a belt around the war [waist], both ends ornamented - a calico shirt with silver wrist & arm bands[.] Beads around the neck, nose & ear rings[,] a fashionable hat, a scarlet shawl in a good mackinaw blanket as the weather might be warm or cold. Blankets & strouds comprised about 3/4 of an order for annuity good. Calico handkerchiefs, etc. in value made up the other fourth."8 McKenney-Hall # 8 "All were neatly clad in the Indian garb, wearing hunting shirts, fringed leggins and mocassins of buckskin, and new flaps of blue cloth. Their eyes were encircled with rings of red paint, and profusion of beads and silver gave a wild, barbaric splendor to their picturesque costume. There were some half a dozen Mingos amongst them, distinguished by the plumes of hawk and eagle feathers, with which their heads were adorned, and by broad heavily beaded girdles around their waists."9 Pushmataha was dressed differently than his men. Charles Bird King depicted him in 1824 in the same outfit described by Halbert. "Pushmataha wore a complete blue military uniform with epaulets, a ruffled shirt, a pair of top boots, a blue sash about his waist, and his head was covered with a black fur hat, to the right side of which was fastened as large, circular, silver ornament. His interpreter and waiter were dressed alike, in cotton hunting shirts with broad copperas [?] stripes, new buckskin leggins and moccasins, blue flaps and black hats."10 Gideon Lincecum described Apushmataha (Pushmataha) as he and other Chiefs and sub-chiefs came to a ball that he had in his new home in the Choctaw Nation in 1822. Apushmataha's dress is more similar to that of his interpreter as described by Halbert. The style of his dress, according to Lincecum, is a "full Choctaw costume".11 "The Mingos (sub-chiefs) and chiefs had, according to my request, come early and were all seated in their places, dressed in full Choctaw costume, with broad silver headbands, long series of diminishing crescents hanging on their breasts, armlets and wristbands, all solid silver, and beads ornamented with three white tail feathers of their own bald eagle. Their moccasins and leggings were of fine dressed deer skins, ornamented with finely cut fringe of the same, and very small white beads sewed on in curious figures."12 The Nile's Register of November 14, 1818 depicted the Choctaw very differently than did Fortesque Cumings. "We are told that many of them [Choctaws] may be considered respectable farmers and extensive herdsmen, having settled homes and enjoying some of the most substantial blessings of civilized life, without participating largely in its vices."13 Education to the Choctaw was considered to be very important. Another article from the Nile's Register, of November 20th 1819, attested to that fact. "The first missionary station among the Choctaws, was established in August, 1818, and the school for the instruction of the Indian children opened about one year since, under the direction of the Rev. Cyrus Kingsbury. - The school now consists of about 40, and the Indians have fallen into this plan of education with great alacrity, and have exhibited a zeal and liberality in support of the school beyond the warmest anticipation of its friends. The following interesting fact is mentioned in a letter from Mrs. Jewel, wife of one of the assistant missionaries, to her friend in this place:- "`At a late council in this nation (at which brother Kingsbury was present) the Choctaws acted nobly: Donations were made by them to the amount of thirteen hundred dollars, and eighty cows and calves.'"14 The United States Government sent contradictory messages to the Choctaw. While on the one hand the government appropriated their land, on the other hand this same government told the Indian Nations that it wanted to take care of them because it cared about their welfare. During the Creek uprising against the United States in 1813, the Choctaw under the leadership of Pushmataha, offered their assistance to the United States against the Creeks; they believed that the Creek uprising would hurt the other Indians by turning the anger of the White men against them.15 From then until 1817 when Mississippi became a state, the Choctaw lived in relative harmony with the United States Government.16 Many methods were used to try to impress upon the Choctaws the need for ceding their lands east of the Mississippi to the United States. It is interesting to note that the Committee of Public Lands issued a report on December 1, 1818 that was read and assigned to a committee of the whole House. This report addressed the issue concerning: ".....the expediency of prohibiting the emigration and settlement of the Choctaw tribe of Indians, on the Lands of the United States, west of the Mississippi, until they shall have acquired that right by treaty with the United States, founded on a cession of lands inhabited by said tribe of Indians east of the river Mississippi."17 The United States continued to press the Choctaws to cede to them their land east of the Mississippi. Finally, on October 18, 1820, the treaty known as The Treaty of Doak's Stand was signed. This treaty would be modified further by the United States on January 20, 1825. Basically, the Treaty of Doak's Stand ceded Choctaw land east of the Mississippi for land west of it. It, also, through Article 5, gave to each warrior "a blanket, kettle, rifle gun, bullet molds and wipers, and ammunition sufficient for hunting and defense for one year."18 At about the same period of time as the initial Treaty of Doak's Stand was being negotiated, Adam Hodgson was traveling through North America. In 1820, he observed a ball play and described the crowd of 200. "The men were elegantly dressed in cotton dresses of white, or red, or blue, with belts handsomely embroidered, and mocassins of brown deer skin. Several of them had circular plates of silver, or silver crescents, hanging from their necks, while others had the same round their arms, and others silver pendants attached to the cartilage of the nose. Some of them had cotton turbans, with white feathers in front, and other black plumes nodding behind. The women, too, were in their gala dress;......We were a little surprised, however, (dare I say disappointed?) to find, that while the dress of the men was so original and picturesque, that of the women differed so little from the Sunday clothes of our female peasants. Gowns of the printed calico formed the common dress, and some had, in addition, a loose red cloak, which they folded, round them with an elegant negligence, which would have done no discredit to a duchess. Their long black hair, tied up behind, shone as brightly as if it had had the advantage of the highly vaunted Macassar Oil. They were, however, overloaded with necklaces and silver ornaments; and with the exception of some young women, who were very handsome, they were coarse and ill formed, exhibiting little of the symmetry of the compact muscular figures of the men."19 In the eighteen twenties, another man studied the Choctaw and, presumably, from his description and inherent material, traveled amongst them; however, some of his descriptions of their life-style and dress could lead one to believe that he was mimicking a compilation of other reports and trying to tie them together. The following quotation was excerpted from a speech he gave before the Royal Physical Society in December of 1829. "Their bodies and heads [are] flattish, which is the effect of an art during infancy. They have long black hair, straight and extremely coarse, nearly as coarse as horses hair,--dark small eyes,--prominent cheek-bones......The long hair observable on the heads of the men, is usually decorated with trinkets. They invariably shave the hair from the temples, and pluck it from their beards before they arrive at the age of manhood. The women do not deprive themselves of any of the natural covering of the head, but wear it plaited behind, and divided in the middle of the forehead, and paint the skin on the line of separation with a streak of vermillion. Their dress is generally a blanket or blue cloth for the covering of the body. Their shoes are mocassins made of deer-skin, deprived of the hair, and exposed to the smoke of a wood fire, till it obtains a deep brown colour. The mocassin is formed of a single piece of this leather, with one seam behind, and another from the instep to the toe. A flap of about two inches is left round the place where the foot enters, and this flap, together with the seam, is fancifully decorated with beads and porcupine quills dyed blue and red.20 If worn by a man it is edged with scarlet hair,--if intended for a woman it reaches to near the calf of the leg, and is ornamented with red binding or ferret: a mocassin of plain leather is worn in common. Above this mocassin the men wear Indian leggings, composed of buckskin, something similar to pantaloons, but the seams are on the outside. These leggings, with their mocassins, two small aprons suspended from the waist, a girdle, a tobacco-pouch, breech-clout,21 scalping-knife and tomahawk, blanket and rifle, compose the whole of their hunting-dress. Their ears and noses are pierced and decorated with large pieces of metal, and their faces painted in the most hideous manner with red, black, and white. The dress of the women is nearly similar, except that they do not wear leggings, and the necks are adorned with large quantities of red and white beads."22 Throughout most of the various accounts starting in the late eighteenth century, it is apparent that the women more closely resembled the white frontier women in their garb than the Indian men did the frontier men. Whether the clothes described above were sewn from fabrics which the Choctaws grew, spun, and wove themselves is not stated. However, Hodgson observed that the Choctaws wove coarse material for their own clothing.23 Horatio B. Cushman had not yet been born when Hodgson was touring the Southeast. Cushman needs to be mentioned since he wrote extensively about information he both obtained and observed while living among the Choctaws. According to Clara Sue Kidwell, a known authority on Choctaw history and culture, Cushman was privy to much information that other White Americans were not.24 He was born in 1822 of missionary parents who followed the Choctaws to Oklahoma. Although Cushman described much Choctaw material culture, rarely did he put it in a time perspective that would show trends in dress for a specific time period. This lack of specificity, all too often, has led to incorrect assumptions about dress for a designated period of time. A good example of this can be found in Cushman's book about the history of the Choctaws, etc. "...yet he [a young Choctaw warrior] was fond of admiring himself before a mirror when arrayed in the paraphanalia of Choctaw fashion; i.e. a red turban, highly decorated with the gay plumage of various kinds of birds encircling his head; with crescents of highly polished tin suspended from his neck and extending in regular order from the chin to the waist; with shining bracelets of the same metal encircling his wrists and elbows; with a broad belt around his waist, tastily interwoven with innumerable little beads of every gay and flashing color; with feet encased in moccasins soft and pliant, and highly decorated with little beads of sparkling hue,......"25 Without having any point of reference, it is not known whether his description of the young warrior's dress was from first hand experience or from descriptions of prior garb. Within the context of the information gathered throughout the centuries, this description was probably gathered from Cushman's first hand knowledge collected while he was growing up in the Southeast among the Choctaws. Article 7 of the Treaty of Doak's Stand stated that the United states would establish a fund for the Choctaw to institute schools both east and west of the Mississippi. Three fourths of the money raised was to be used for schools east of the Mississippi. The fund was to be placed in the hands of the President of the United States. The Choctaws realized the need for education and valued it even before the Federal Government offered to subsidize it. At a typical missionary school run by missionaries under the American Board for Foreign Missions, the boys learnt agriculture, the girls did sewing and other domestic employ. Both read the Bible and learnt "reading, writing, accounts, and English grammar, on a modification of the British system."26 Henry Sale Halbert was born in Alabama in 1837 and spent much of his life writing about the Choctaws. According to a report of the mission schools in the Choctaw Nation for the year that ended September 30, 1826, the girls at Mayhew Mission, under supervision ".......made.......35 shirts, 66 pair of pantaloons, four coats, one cloak, 15 vests, seven hunting frocks, 69 dresses, 65 aprons, 30 pair of stockings, and a variety of smaller articles."27 In a report issued by the secretary of War circa 1822, he emphasized that the education of females was extremely important for it was believed that they were the purveyors of civilization.28 Adam Hodgson wrote that many of the Indian children at the missionary settlement were "still in Indian costume;"29 however, he did not further describe their dress. Sarah Tuttle, writing about a school in 1820, did described their appearance: "They came dressed in blankets and leggins, with kerchiefs on their heads, in real Indian fashion. After these were laid aside, the children were washed clean and dressed in complete suits of new clothes, which had been forwarded by female associations from all parts of the country."30 The missionaries apparent lack of understanding of the clothes of their charges, seems to underscore the vast ignorance as to the general culture of the Indians as evidenced by an entry in the Elliot Mission Journal of January 29th, 1820. "A number more of the scholars are sick with colds. The complaints are attributed, as well as their immediate cause, to the very great and sudden changes in the weather, and to the exposed situation of the scholars, as it respects clothing, and particularly shoes. They have moccasons (sic) made of dressed deer skins, which are sufficient in common families, and where they are not under the necessity of going out; but where 60 are in a family, and they are obliged to go out as much as our scholars are exposed to cold, rains, frosts and snows, their health is greatly endangered."31 Donated clothing was not only used to dress the Indian students, but was also used as a medium of exchange by the missionaries. Since these missionaries received little cash from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, they used the donated clothes as an exchange medium.32 In addition, according to the writings of Henry Sale Halbert, the missions received surpluses of clothes and the missionaries deemed it prudent to use them as a form of currency.33 The Choctaws, themselves, appropriated money for schools. Hodgson wrote that: "Of the three districts or towns into which its 15,000 or 20,000 souls are divided, one has appropriated to the use of schools its annuity for seventeen years, of 2000 dollars per annum, received from the United States for ceded lands; another, its annuity of 1000 per annum, with the prospect of 1000 more:"34 The Treaty of Doak's Stand did not mandate that all the Choctaws had to remove to the west. Article 8 of this treaty allowed those who desired to remain and lived within ceded land a piece of land one mile square to include their improvements; while anyone desiring to move within one year from treaty date was to be paid full value for the land. The Treaty of Doak's Stand was modified in 1825 partly to appease the White settlers who lived in the Arkansas territory and who were displaced by the Doak's Stand treaty. Article 12, of this same treaty, stated that the Indian Agent had the power to confiscate all whiskey that was brought into the nation. 35 This prohibition of whiskey is interesting because in preparation for the arrival of the Choctaw delegation to Washington in 1825, Secretary of War Calhoun obtained $2,000 from Congress which "included a whiskey allowance for the commissioners of $3.00 per day."36 This was not to prove adequate because the Indians consumed an average of $8.21 per day.37 For the next few years, the United States government tried to pacify the White men who lived in Arkansas while negotiating with the Choctaw for their lands east of the Mississippi. Leadership in the Choctaw nation was changed from Mushulatubbe and Robert Cole to David Folsom and Greenwood LeFlore. But the change that affected the Choctaws most strongly was the election to the presidency of Andrew Jackson in 1828. During this period, Choctaw delegations including Nitakechi and Mushulatubbe travelled to the Indian territory for the purpose of assessing the land.38 George Gaines, a merchant, wrote to Secretary of War, John H. Eaton, requesting clothes, blankets, and new mounts (horses) for many of the party. He wrote that they: "set out so badly mounted and clad, that I have been compelled to aid them in exchanging their tired ponies for fresh ones... and also, in purchasing clothing and blankets for their comfort."39 Also, at this time, the state of Mississippi decided to abolish tribal jurisdiction by making the Indians citizens of the State of Mississippi. The Niles' Register of June 26, 1830 stated that "The Indians in Mississippi have been adopted as citizens."40 The July 10th issue of The Niles' Register carried the following article: "AN INDIAN CANDIDATE FOR CONGRESS According to the laws of Mississippi, the Indians residing within the limits of the state are entitled to the full rights of citizenship. In consequence, Mushulatubbe, an Indian chief of the Choctaw nation, has been induced to offer himself as a candidate for congress,......."41 Halbert described the decade from 1820-1830 as one that saw great advances toward "civilization" among the Choctaw. Halbert probably would have defined a civilized Indian as one who adopted the life style of a Christian White man. Some of the evidences of this were: "the large number of people adopting the dress, furniture and many other comforts and conveniences of civilized life. The weaving of cloth and blankets and the making of clothing were common in the two districts [of the Choctaw Nation]. On public occasions many people were seen to be comfortably, and some even richly, dressed. Mr. Cushman, writing in July, 1830, states that near Hebron there were 14 men and boys who habitually wore trousers, where two years before only one man wore them; and that there was a corresponding improvement with the women in their dress and needlework."42 Other descriptions of their modes of dress during the above mentioned decade can be found in letters included in the Niles' Register of July 3, 1830. The first is from William Ward, U.S. Agent for the Choctaws, who had been with them since 1820, and the second is from Stephen Ward, Sub-Agent. In a letter to Reverend Kingsbury on May 7th, 1830, William Ward wrote that: "....the improvements in the general habits of life have far exceeded my expectations, particularly within the last two or three years. "The nation begins to live like white people and they dress quite decently at public collections."43 Stephen Ward wrote on May 14th, 1830: "I have lived in the Choctaw nation of Indians for five or six years and have traveled in the nation a good deal during that time. I see a very great change in the red people for the better. Their condition is improving rapidly. They are spinning and weaving and making their own clothing of good homespun cloth. I have myself bought many yards of cloth from full-blooded Indians of their own make. "Last Sunday, I was at a camp meeting near the agency and saw a great many of these people.......They were dressed, many of them, in cloth of their own making, some in calico; all clean and decent. Nearly all the men I saw at the meeting wore pantaloons."44 Much mention is made of homespun cloth. According to Halbert, in the Folsom district in 1828, there were 530 spinning wheels and 124 looms. The population there was 5,627.45 Contained in the Elliot Mission Journal is an entry for December 28, 1822 which stated that "....there are three looms in this village;.....one of them made by a Choctaw."46 "A treaty of perpetual friendship, cession, and limits, [was] entered into by John H. Eaton and John Coffee, for and in behalf of the Government of the United States, and the mingoes, chiefs, captains, and warriors of the Choctaw nation, begun and held at Dancing Rabbit Creek."47 This became known as The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek. It obliged the Choctaws to cede all their land east of the Mississippi to the Government of the United States and mandated that by the fall of 1833 all Choctaws will have begun their migration west. This, according to the United States, would give the Choctaws, once again, the freedom to govern themselves. The treaty contained twenty-two articles. Article XIV gave the head of a Choctaw family the right to a designated amount of reservation land east of the Mississippi on the condition that he became a citizen of the United States. In addition, by Article XV, land grants and monetary grants were given to the various chiefs and important persons in the Choctaw nation. This included for each captain of the nation, when removing west, a good suit of clothes and a broadsword.48 The good suit of clothing consisted of a hat, a linen-shirt, a stock, a frock-coat, a vest, overalls, a pair of laced-boots, a belt, cockades, and plumes.49 Article XX provided for the furnishing of agricultural tools, looms, etc.50 Two years later, on April 10, 1833, George Gibson, C.G.S. issued a directive to Major F. W. Armstrong which stated that: "The following articles required of the Choctaws, in fulfillment of the treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, will be procured; and you are authorized to contract for the same, viz. 400 looms, &c.1,000 spinning wheels. "The looms to be of the best seasoned materials, with hand-shuttles, cast iron rag wheels, and wrought iron wrists. And in all respects of the strongest and most durable character. "The spinning wheels, [were to be made with] with steel spindle, and turned iron axle. The materials, also, to be of the best quality; the wood well seasoned. In fine, both of these articles to be of what would be called first rate country looms and wheels."51 The treaty was ratified on February 25, 1831.52 Even before the treaty was ratified, due to the intense suffering of the Choctaw people during the fall of 1830, Greenwood LeFlore in a letter to the Indian Office informed them that the Choctaws would start to emigrate immediately. He, however, did not emigrate with his people.53 "I find it impossible to prevent my people from emigrating immediately in considerable bodies. Many of them, in consequence of the disturbances in the spring, and the excessive dry summer are without provisions and must seek them in the forest, go into the white settlements, or emigrate at the risque of suffering in their new homes. I have advised the latter as the most prudent course."54 Even before ratification, the United States Government was involved in provisioning the emigrants and arranging for their arrival at Kiamitia in the Indian Territory. George Gibson from the Office of Commissary General Subsistence wrote to Lt. L. F. Carter, Assis't Com'y Sub. with instructions on the treatment of the emigrants once they arrived and the amount of rations to be distributed. "The ration to consist of one and a half pounds of beef or pork, one pint of corn, or an equivalent in corn-meal or flour, and two quarts of salt, to every hundred rations. In the performance of this duty, every care and economy must be practiced consistent with the good of the service in which you will be engaged, taking special pains to treat the emigrants with all the kindness and civility in your power in order that they may be induced to remain, and, as agriculturists to become useful to themselves and to the Government; and also, that no unfavorable impression may be carried back to their nation that will discourage the emigration of the main body."55 Even though the Indians were supposedly outfitted for the emigration by the United States, a letter written on December 15, 1831 By Captain J. Brown, Superintendent of Removal and Subsistence of the Indians, wrote: "The unexpected cold weather must produce much suffering. Our poor emigrants, many of them quite naked, and without much shelter, must suffer: it is impossible to be otherwise; and my great fears are, that many of them will get frosted."56 Another letter, in the same time period, contained the statement that few wore even moccasins.57 By the terms of the treaty, the Indians were to be provided with rations for a period of twelve months after reaching their new home.58 The following letter from Joseph Kerr, a citizen from Lake Providence, LA. to the Honorable Lewis Cass, written on June 14, 1832, had as its goal the message that the emigrants were not provisioned well enough and, thus, underwent unnecessary suffering. It also showed the poor condition that many of the Choctaws had reached at the time of Removal. "I see, by some late paper, that a treaty has been made lately with the Creek Indians, and see that one provision of it, which may have been considered important is that `each family shall be furnished with a Blankett.' "It was with yourself the treaty was formed. You have long resided in a cold climate, and from that circumstance may consider a Blankett enough for a family so far south. This would be an improper estimate.............. "I live now on the side of, and within forty feet of, the road, and the only one by which the Choctaw Indians have passed, and must pass, that go by land. The extreme poverty and consequent suffering in passing last fall attracted my particular notice,........I do not yet know who is the contractor for furnishing rations. But be him or them, who they may, their object is to make money without the least feeling for the suffering of this unfortunate people. From Vicksburg to this place is sixty-eight miles. On this route they received a scanty supply, and only then a part of the parties once. Here they received worse than a scanty supply, to do them eighty miles through uninhabited country, fifty miles of which is an overflowed swamp, and in which distances are two large streams that must be crossed in a boat or on a raft, and one other nearly impassable in any way. This, they had to perform or perish there being no provisions made for them on the way. This, too, was to be done during the worst time of weather, I have ever seen in any country- a heavy sleet having broken and bowed down all the small and much of the large timber. And this was to be performed under the pressure of hunger by old women and young children, without any covering for their feet, legs, or body, except a cotton under-dress59 generally. In passing, before they reached the place of getting rations here, I gave a party leave to enter a small field in which pumpkins were. They would not enter without leave, though starving. Those they ate raw and with great avidity. "I furnished part of the beef they got, and was invited to take out the kidney fat, by the man who was to furnish them. "These people have with them a great number of horses, and some cattle, chiefly oxen. The time required to get the horses and cattle together in a morning when travelling through a country thickly covered with strong cane as this is, must be very considerable in good weather, and in bad weather, days are often spent at the same camp. Provisions ought to be made to feed them all the way, whatever might be the delay. "I presume it is much in the power of the President to provide, in a cheap way, for the safety, if not the comfort, of these people. If I am correct, I would suggest the propriety of having salt provisions, bacon, furnished for these long marches. Corn they could carry if they got it, but this has not been furnished. I think, too, that instead of a blanket to each family, a blanket to each individual, and a skin to make moccasins and leggings to each would not be too much. This people have not skins, but they could be had low on contract. I would go still further. I would give each at least a pair of shoes or moccasins, and two pair of short stockings. "I have seen poverty amongst the northern Indians, but theirs is nothing compared to that of those of the south. Friendship for the whites never can exist in the bosom of those that passed here last fall. The least sensible of them has been touched too deeply in the tender part ever to become reconciled. "Report says, and I have no doubt of the truth of it, that the Choctaws have been greatly defrauded in the sale of their stock cattle. Indeed it appears to us, who are near enough to almost see the whole, that few, if any, are sent amongst them, or intrusted to act for or with them, that are not the most unprincipled of the human family. How this should so invariably happen, is difficult to suppose. Blame is due somewhere, and to a great extent. "I am living quite secluded, and write but little, as this letter may be proof of, but the tenor of it will show that I am not an inattentive looker-on..........be assured that the administration generally, and yourself particularly, have no warmer friend, as to things in general, than I am." The letter was signed by Joseph Kerr.60 The conditions were not very different in 1833. A letter of April 8, 1833 by Lieutenant J. P. Simonton stated that: "Many of these children came to the place of rendezvous, and were enrolled to go west of the Mississippi, who had nothing under heaven to protect their naked bodies from the pitiless storm but a share of the parents' blanket, which served as a mantle by day and a bed by night."61 In another letter to the Secretary of War, Joseph Kerr identified the Indians under discussion as being those whom were traveling under the auspices of the United States Government. He claimed that only one part had traversed his path under its own resources.62 Even those Indians who went on their own and took a stipend to do such, underwent much suffering because the monetary allotment was insufficient to meet their needs on the journey. Peter Pitchlynn, in a letter to Lewis Cass, Secretary of War, in the summer of 1832 addressed himself, in part, to the issue of the hardship of those removing themselves under their own recognizance. "In relation to the communication, I learnt from Col. Ward that fifteen dollars will be allowed to those removing themselves. My experience last fall and winter convinces me that less than twenty dollars will not be sufficient. The march of the people will be less forced in all sorts of weather; consequently, the health of the people, better defended and secured. Will not the Government even at twenty dollars create a saving below the expenditure of transportation (?) waggons and supplies. I speak of those who can remove themselves. There are many who must be removed altogether by the Government. At the time the Treaty was made our understanding with the commissioners was that we would remove to our new country in the same comfortable manner as the whites do in moving from one country to another; And that we were not to be limited to any particular number of waggons, but were to have what would reasonably be useful. Now we learnt from the Agent (Col. Ward) that but two waggons have been allowed by the late arrangement to every hundred persons. There are many amongst us who are young and many who are old and infirm, none of whom can walk, and they have not horses. How are they to be (got?) along?"63 Edmund Gardner was born in 1877. His father travelled to the Indian Nation with Reverend Alfred Wright. Mr. Gardner was a student of Choctaw history and collected many documents from the nineteenth century that dealt with the Choctaws. In his papers at The Thomas Gilcrease Museum in Tulsa, OK. is a document that he wrote about "Granny Leflore", known as Sookie, who was born about 1775 and lived until the last quarter of the nineteenth century. In 1796, Sookie married Tom Leflore who was three quarters French and one quarter Choctaw. Leflore was to became an important figure among the Choctaws. Although it is hard to differentiate, in this document, as to who is relating the facts - Granny Leflore or Gardner - it seems acceptable to believe that the latter is, at least, relating information gleaned from people who were part of the actual removal. "After the treaty of 1830 was signed and its requirements proclaimed, the people went into mourning. Some were bitter against their leaders and accused them of selling out. Tom Leflore was one of the recognized leaders and had to bear the brunt of false reports and slanderous talk. Many of the people believed him and came to his home for consolation and advice, and he told them nothing could be done but make arrangements to go west. Some of them began making preparations to go. Many of the wealthier ones went in family groups in their own way and at their own expense, others went in small companies, but most of them lingered and went in larger groups as they were ready to make the trip. Tom Leflore was wealthy enough to have assembled a few of his friends and kindred and make the trip in comfort, but he chose to go with a large company of about six hundred who had gathered at Goshen so as to leave the first of August 1832. "As this was a more representative group it will be more fully described. Several days before the appointed time the people began to come in and set up shelter of some sort in which to live until all were ready to depart. They came in wagons, horseback, in carts, on sleds, with pole drags, and afoot. It was known that only the most necessary things for each family could be taken along and nothing that had much weight.64 The government furnished some wagons and some private individuals others, but there were not enough to provide conveyances for anyone able to walk. They were used for things necessary for the journey, for young children, the aged, the sick and afflicted. A herd of cattle was driven in the rear to be slaughtered as needed for meat, in addition to wild game that could be secured along the route. Travel was made as comfortable as possible but there was much suffering at best. At the beginning the weather was warm but when it became cold and there was a lot of rain, the roads were almost impassable and the people were worn out with walking. The suffering was intense. Babies were born along the way, the dead were buried by the way, and still the march went on. The progress was slow for many of the wagons were drawn by oxen and something was always happening to interrupt the going. "Leflore's company was made up of kinfolk, friends, members of the same church or community and it was called a Christian company because they held morning and evening services and never traveled on Sunday. A great many of them were very poor, and had very little clothing and no shoes and they suffered greatly from the snow and sleet and cold rain. They had no suitable shelter to protect them from the weather and the food gave making it necessary to beg a little corn. The company was formed of smaller groups of from two to four wagons. Each family and their near kin had their things together in one or more wagons and formed a unit of the larger company. The Leflores had four wagons; the Gardners, two wagons; the Garlands, three; the Garvins, two; the Jones, two, etc. The six government wagons with the food led the way and would select the camping place, always where there was water, the others came on as they could, at times it would be late at night, having been delayed by wagons breaking down, bad roads, swollen streams or by burying the dead. Two men in the company knew a little about medicine and were able to give relief to the sick and first aid to those injured by accidents. "65Four government wagons brought up the rear with the cattle that were brought along for fresh beef. Oftentimes it was necessary to throw a temporary bridge across the stream in order to cross or wait until the waters receded. The Mississippi was crossed [at?] Vicksburg and was about the only ferry found on the way. "(It was a pitiful sight to see the emigrants trudging along the road. Some of the women had many little things they wanted to take along but could not find room in any of the wagons, so they put them in large pack baskets with leather straps that went across the foreheads and the basket resting on their shoulders and backs, and many things precious to them were carried in this manner all the way from Mississippi. Some of the men wore the white man's clothing with shoes, some wore buckskin breeches and a blanket with moccasins on their feet. Nearly all had long hair cropped square at the shoulder and a hat like the white man. The women were dressed just about the same, with long cotton dresses that touched the ground, a large shawl over their shoulders and head, and some had red handkerchiefs on their heads. Some wore moccasins and some shoes. Many men and women went barefooted as also were the young boys and girls.) "The Choctaw had large herds of cattle which they had to leave behind but later most of the cattle were gathered in one large herd and driven through. Some of the people were successful in selling off their property, but others had to go away and just leave what they could not carry with them. The white people soon flooded the country and took everything of value left by the Indians. "The next few years were very hard ones for the settlers [the Choctaws], land had to be cleared, houses built, and food had to be raised for the government was to furnish food for one year only after the removal. Many of the people died from the hardships of the trip and from exposure to all kinds of weather and conditions. "Two trading posts had been established by this time, one near Fort Townson, the other near Eagleton but supplies of all kinds were scarce and very high. Annuity money was paid by Govt. at these two places but no medicine could be obtained at any price and that was badly needed more than anything just then. During the summer and fall of 1834 better houses were built mostly along the Military Road and the people were becoming settled and more reconciled to the situation. "From the border line of the new Indian country the land had been taken by other groups and companies that had proceeded this one, so they moved on a good many miles before finding land not occupied. When a suitable location was found, the company broke up, the units going in different directions and finding places that suited them. It was getting late in the year, cold weather was coming on and there was much rain. There were only a few tents, and open sheds and log houses were put up hurriedly to give shelter. There were few tools to work with, and a long way to go to get any, so they helped each other as best they could. The country was heavily timbered, the low lands along the rivers were swampy and the underbrush dense, almost tropical. There was one public road through the country, the Military Road from Little Rock to Fort Townson, built 1824. The Leflores found a good spring of water on this road on the edge of a small prairie, stopped there and lived in tents and log cabins through the winter. In 1834 the Choctaws built the cabin for Tom Leflore that was mentioned above.66 "All the Choctaws did not come as this company just described. Some came by boat up the Arkansas and Red rivers, the leaders and the wealthier ones came in private conveyance and in small select companies. The most noted of the wealthy Choctaws were Robert Jones and Joel Kemp, both owned slaves. ........In the succeeding years churches and schools were established, the people held their councils, elected their officers and were generally satisfied, except the few who believed their leaders had not dealt fairly with them back in Miss. These were mostly the full-blood element and ignorant Indians."67 Many of the Indians left their land east of the Mississippi in rags, while others, usually chiefs and headmen left in `splendor'. The two following accounts of July 3, 1832 show the moneys spent by and owed to General Callender Irvine for "Treaty articles" furnished to the Choctaw. "For this sum advanced him out of the appropriations for carrying into effect the treaty with the Choctaws, viz: For salaries to chiefs and others, suits of clothes &c. $3,168. transportation y [?] Contingencies...... 1,341.81 Pr. Act to carry into effect certain Indian Treaties ________ approved 2nd March, 1831."68 4,509.81
John Stuart, who was a Captain in the U.S. Army stationed in the Choctaw Nation, wrote about the two nations that he was the most familiar with - the Cherokee and the Choctaw. His book was published in 1837 in Little Rock, Arkansas. He was not specific in regard to the Choctaw whether he was describing them as they had lived east of the Mississippi or how they lived once they moved to their land west of the Mississippi. However, their manner of living and mode of dress should be consistent with the socio-economic class stratification within the Choctaw Nation. Their Manner of Living "The Choctaws have ceased to rove or to live in villages as was their ancient custom. The poorer class usually build their houses very small, of small light logs, and seldom have plank or wooden floors to them......The more wealthy, or civilized, of them build their houses more immediately after the form and manner of those of the whites, and in many instances they have very good and comfortable dwellings. "The Choctaws seldom hunt wild game for their subsistence, but live by cultivating the earth and raising stock. Their provisions are prepared and served up in the same manner, and they use all of the common luxuries just as the whites do, and even the poorer, or less civilized, use much sugar and coffee. "Many of the women of the nation conduct the affairs of the house in the very same manner that the white women of the states do. They sew, spin, and weave, &c., but in a general way they know much less of those arts than the women of the Cherokee nation......They [wealthy women] also, when riding on horse back, use the side saddle. The poorer class seldom ride on horseback, but when they do, they usually take the position of men."70 Dress, Manner, and Political Opinion "Much more of the ancient dress is worn by the Choctaws than by the Cherokees, and in fact near one half of the men wear more or less of the ancient costume, or that which very nearly resembles it.71 They wear moccasins made of dressed deer skins, and leggins made of the same material, or of a coarse cloth of red or blue color, with a flap of the same kind of cloth. They wear a shirt of domestic cotton of the usual fashion of the whites, which extends a little below the upper part of the leggins, over which they wear a toga made of striped domestic cotton, or of fine and fancy calico, which is usually made in a tasty manner, and ornamented with fringe or ferret. [A ferret is a narrow ribbon or tape of silk or cotton used for binding or as a trimming.] They wear on the head a turban, which is constructed of a large shawl of some fancy color, such as blue or red ground. Some of them place around the turban a band of silver about two inches wide, and place in the turban ostrich and other fanciful feathers. Many of them also wear bands of silver, two or three inches wide, around the arm above the elbow and wrist, and gird around their waist, over the toga, a fine and fanciful belt of native construction. The belt is ornamented with small beads of different colors, which are worked on the belt with a needle, in very tasty figures or resemblance of flowers; a similar band about two or three inches wide, is worn around the legs at the swell [calves]. The more civilized portion of them, or those having much intercourse with the whites, dress more after their fashion, and some of that number dress precisely as the whites do, and wear as fine cloth and other materials as is worn by the most fashionable of them. That portion of them that departed from the ancient dress, and do not pattern after the whites entirely, as is the case with some, usually wear pantaloons, &c with a blue frock and a hat. Some of them place a band of silver around the hat, and in some instances attach a feather or plume. The fancy or ornamented part of the dress is worn by them only on occasions that seem to require dressing, and when they can display finery to advantage. Ordinarily, their dress is plain and rough, as may suit the occasion. The same remark will apply to the women. "The Choctaw women usually dress very plain. Many of the older ones wear a petticoat made of domestic cotton, which is fastened around the waist and extends to the ankles. Formerly this dress was made of woolen stroud, and extended a little below the knee; they also wear a kind of short bed-gown72 covering the upper part of the petticoat, and is made to fit very loose; others wear a gown or dress of colored domestic or calico, made after the fashion of the white women of the States; and more than one-half of the women tie their hair up with a string, which is sometimes of leather, but is usually of ferret of a color suited to the fancy of the individual, and in that case they do not use a comb, and seldom wear any kind of a covering on the head, except such as nature gave them. This custom, however, is confined principally to the older women. Nearly all the young women, even the poorer and less civilized class, use combs, particularly when dressed in their best manner. Many of the more civilized portion of the women dress precisely as the white women do, and some of that number use the finest and most costly articles of dress; but, like the Cherokee women, they seldom wear a bonnet, but after placing their hair in a very tasteful manner with fine combs, they use a veil or fine silk handkerchief, which they tastefully arrange as a covering for the head, and which is evidently in better taste than the huge straw bonnets usually worn by the white women."73 "The Choctaws have in their nation more than double as many schools as there are in any other nation of Indians within the United States."74 Karl Bodmer, a painter, traveled in the southeast from 1832 to 1834 during the removal phase. While he was in New Orleans and Natchez, he encountered some Choctaw Indians who had not yet removed to the west. Many of his paintings are very detailed. Billie75 Billie wears his black hair in bangs across the front; on the sides, he wears it a little below his ears. His outer garment is tan and appears to be a blanket that he has wrapped around himself. From the picture, a hint of white is showing on one arm below the elbow. This could signify a shirt. The garment ends a little below his knees. He wears leggings from his ankles to above his the knees. They are a darker brown than the outer garment and could be made from tanned hides. He wears garters below his knees that are made from woven strips (possibly finger woven76). These are wrapped around his leg at least twice and tied on the outer edge. The leggings appear to be worn inside his moccasins which are made of a few pieces. They appear to have a separate sole, are gathered across the top of the foot, are open in the form of a diamond at the ankle, and are fasted above the ankle bone. The top is fringed. However, if F. B. Young is correct, the moccasins are, actually, made from one piece of skin.77 Tulope78 Tulope is dressed more richly than is Billie. He wears a turban with a high crown on his head, high up on his forehead. His hair is grey and reaches to his shoulders. From the inside out - he wears a neck cloth knotted around his neck with the ends tucked into the opening of his white shirt. His shirt has full sleeves at the shoulder which taper at his wrist. Around his left wrist, he wears a woven band that is wrapped around many times. It is probably a finger woven piece of material. It is mainly red with an edging of white. Over his shirt, he has on a blue sleeveless waistcoat with a collar laid back to form an open V that is edged in white. It appears that he is not wearing anything on his legs but blue cloth leggings that extend from his thighs to the instep of his foot. These are edged in white along the upper edge and then, again, about 2" from the top edge. These leggings are wrapped around his leg so the side seam is on the outside of his leg. This edge is trimmed in red. The bottoms of the leggings appear to be fastened under his foot in the same manner as were Englishmen's gaiters, long-gaiters, or spatterdashes.79 The leggings worn by this Choctaw man are edged on the bottom in yellow and red. His moccasins are, also gathered on the top and appear to have a separate sole. His outer most garment appears to be a blanket similar to the one Billie is shown wearing. However, this blanket appears to be worn over the left shoulder and arm, held closed by a string wrapped around his waist. Choctaw Women and a Baby80 In 1833, Bodmer painted two Choctaw women. However, while he drew the men in detailed fashion, the women's dress is indistinct. One of the women is nursing a baby and appears to have on a long garment with tight long sleeves and a neck low enough to permit nursing. The other woman appears to wear a blanket. Both have multiple strings of beads around their necks. Their hair is worn parted in the middle. One wears it pulled back into a loose bun at the nape of her neck; the other wears it loose. The baby is wearing a white dress with long sleeves. Tsanny81 Tsanny is dressed very fancifully. On his head he wears a flat crowned turban with an extension of fabric worn behind. He appears to have a band of silver around the crown. Most of his black hair is under the turban. He wears an oval earring suspended from his ear. The latter is not misshapen. Around his neck, he wears a filigree choker probably of silver. His white shirt has a round neckline and is ruffled in the front and at the wrist. His shirt contains an outer sleeve that is attached to the armcyces and gathered in panels. The sleeve is attached high on the shoulder and is probably not more than eight inches in length. He wears a silver band on his upper arm. He appears to wear some type of indistinct wrap in front that ends above his knees. His outer most garment is a blanket-like garment worn over his left shoulder and attached at the waist so that his right arm is free. His leggings are red edged in green or blue. They are covered by his outer garment and extend to his ankles. The way Bodmer has depicted the blankets or blanket like garments worn by the Choctaw men has no point of reference in any other visual artists' or writers' depictions. He has only painted two Choctaw men who are totally dressed in a manner conforming to what others have described. One man, Billie, has already been described. The other man was drawn in 1833; he is accompanied by a woman.82 Bodmer drew this man and woman in Natchez. She is wrapped in a blanket which acts as a carrier for a baby. The baby is encased in the blanket and carried, facing front, on her back near the back of her head. Her blanket reaches to her ankles. Under it she wears a long skirt and top. She has on moccasins and wears beads around her neck. The man is dressed in moccasins, leggings and a loose tunic. The tunic appears to have long sleeves and another outer set of sleeves that resemble a cape. Bodmer has painted the tunic in blue. Around the man's head is a piece of cloth that has been wrapped around the crown of his head. This piece of material, however, is not wrapped around his forehead. Extra material hangs down the back. The man wears his hair cut across his forehead in the front; the remainder reaches to his shoulders. It cannot be known how many Choctaw remained east of the Mississippi when Bodmer was there. While Bodmer was painting in the southeast, Catlin was painting those who had emigrated to land west of the Mississippi. According to Clara Sue Kidwell, the Choctaws became a divided people - those who remained in the southeast after removal and those who emigrated to the Indian Territory. 4. Annie Heloise Abel, The Annual report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1906, "The History of Events Resulting in Indian Consolidation West of the Mississippi", pp. 252-253. 6. Fortescue Cuming, Cumings Tour to the Western Country (1807-1809) contained in Reuben Gold Thwaites' Early Western Travels, Volume lV pp. 365-366. 7. In the typescript of the George A. Gaines Papers found in the Foreman Collection at The Thomas Gilcrease Museum. Tulsa, OK. the dimensions for the Stroud were absent. 8. Foreman Collection, box 20, volume 33 - "Papers of George A Gaines", pp. 10-12 [handwritten page numbers]. Thomas Gilcrease Museum. Tulsa, OK. 9. Foreman Collection, box 20, volume 31 - "Draper Collection -Halbert's Correspondence," pp. 91-92 [handwritten page numbers]. Thomas Gilcrease Museum. Tulsa, OK. 10. Foreman Collection, box 20, volume 31 - "Draper Collection -Halbert's Correspondence," p. 92 [handwritten page numbers]. Thomas Gilcrease Museum. Tulsa, OK. 11. Jerry Bryan Lincecum & Edward Hake Phillips, editors; Gideon Lincecum, author, Adventures of a Frontier Naturalist, p.90. 18. Arthur H. DeRosier Jr., The Removal of the Choctaw Indians, p. 172. Appendix A pp.168-173 contain the text of the Treaty of Doak's Stand. 20. Porcupine quills were not normally used in the southeast. Prior to this account, only one account in the 18th century refers to them. 21. Why he states that they wore two small aprons and a breech-clout is unclear. One or the other was worn; not both together. 22. F. B. Young, "Notices of the Chactaw or Choctah Tribe of North American Indians", from J. Peterson's, A Choctaw Source Book, pp. 13-14. 27. Henry Watterson Heggie, Indians and Pioneers of Old Eliot, p. 78, from a narrative by Henry Sale Halbert "The Introduction of Christianity and Education in the Choctaw Nation." 28. Henry Watterson Heggie, Indians and Pioneers of Old Eliot, pp. 33-34, from a narrative by Henry Sale Halbert "The Introduction of Christianity and Education in the Choctaw Nation." In this narrative Halbert quotes Morse's Report to the Secretary of War, New haven. 1822, pp. 183-5. 31. Elliot Mission Journal, File D2-3, p. 1. From the Natchez Trace Park Department Headquarters Library. 33. Henry Watterson Heggie, Indians and Pioneers of Old Eliot, p.73 from the narrative "The Introduction of Christianity and Education in the Choctaw Nation" by Henry Sale Halbert. 35. Arthur H. DeRosier Jr., The Removal of the Choctaw Indians, p. 172. Appendix A pp.168-173 contain the text of the Treaty of Doak's Stand. 42. Henry Watterson Heggie, Indians and Pioneers of Old Eliot, pp. 115-116 from the narrative "The Introduction of Christianity and Education in the Choctaw Nation" by Henry Sale Halbert. 45. Henry Watterson Heggie, Indians and Pioneers of Old Eliot, p.118, from the narrative "The Introduction of Christianity and Education in the Choctaw Nation" by Henry Sale Halbert. 46. Eliot Mission Journal from December 28, 1822, p. 78. File D2-3 from the Natchez Trace Park Department Headquarter's Library. 49. Removal of the Indians, volume 1, Letter of July 10, 1832 from George Gibson, C. G. S. to Capt. D. McClellan, sub-agent of Choctaws, Fort Smith, p. 116. 54. National Archives, microfilm group M234, roll 185. Letter from Greenwood LeFlore to The Indian Office, October 5, 1830. 58. Indian Removals, volume 1, Letter from J.H. Hook Acting C. G. S. to Capt. John B. Clark, June 21, 1831, p. 14. 62. The Indian Removals, volume 1, "Letter of August 17, 1832 from Joseph Kerr to the Secretary of War," p. 721. 63. National Archives, microfilm 234, roll 185. "Letter of July 10, 1832 from Peter Pitchlynn to Lewis Cass." 65. There is no indication in the typed manuscript why Gardner enclosed some paragraphs in parentheses. However, his notations are being followed. 66. This paragraph originally came before the one that starts "(It was a pitiful......"). It has been moved in order to give this document a more sequential form. 71. Once again, it is necessary to note that what was described as an "ancient costume" actually started to evolve in the middle of the eighteenth century. 72. A bed gown is described as being either a "shortened version of the styled gown, with set-in sleeves and a waist seam," or a longer version of the short gown." It was stated that "the shortgown's sleeves were cut as part of the pattern piece that formed the body, rather than as separate pattern pieces." Also, the shortgown did not have a waist seam and"the flared extension of the shortgown over the hips was also cut as part of the body." From Merideth Wright, Everyday Dress of Rural America 1783-1800, p. 44. 74.Ibid.,, p. 40. 76. Finger weaving is a technique of weaving without a loom where the weft threads are also the warp threads. The weaving can be very intricate depending on the pattern formed by the different yarn threads and by weaving into the pattern beads. 77. F. B. Young, "Notices of the Chactaw or Choktaw Tribe of North American Indians, p. 13 from A Choctaw Source Book, edited by J. Peterson. 79. Gaiters in general were a covering for the ankle and the small of the foot. These were worn as an outer garment for protection. They were held by buttons on the outside and a strap that passed under the instep. From A Dictionary of English Costume by the Cunningtons and Beard, p. 91; and from A Handbook of English Costume, by the Cunningtons, p. 73. |